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How Rene Descartes Changed the Way We Think About Reality

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How Rene Descartes Changed the Way We Think About Reality

Rene Descartes was a mathematician, philosopher, physiologist, mechanic and physicist whose ideas and discoveries played a major role in the development of several scientific fields at once. He developed the algebraic symbolism that we use to this day, became the “father” of analytical geometry, laid the foundations for the development of reflexology, created mechanism in physics – and these are far from all of his achievements.

Childhood and Youth

René Descartes was born in the city of Lae on March 31, 1596. The name of this city was later renamed “Descartes”. René’s parents were representatives of an old noble family, which in the 16th century was barely making ends meet. René was the third son in the family. When Descartes was 1 year old, his mother died suddenly. The father of the future famous scientist worked as a judge in another city, so he rarely visited the children. Therefore, after the death of his mother, Descartes Jr.’s grandmother took on the task of raising him.

From an early age, René demonstrated amazing curiosity and a desire to gain knowledge. At the same time, he had fragile health. The boy received his first education at the Jesuit college of La Fleche. This educational institution was distinguished by a strict regime, but Descartes, given his health, was given some concessions in this regime. For example, he could wake up later than other students.

Like most colleges of the time, La Flèche’s education was religious in nature. And although learning meant a lot to the young Descartes, this focus of the educational system engendered and strengthened in him a critical attitude toward the philosophical authorities of the time.

After completing his studies at the college, René went to Poitiers, where he received a bachelor’s degree in law. He then spent some time in the French capital, and in 1617 he entered military service. The mathematician participated in military actions in Holland, which was then engulfed in revolution, and also in the short battle for Prague. In Holland, Descartes became friends with the physicist Isaac Beeckman.

Then René lived in Paris for some time, and when the followers of the Jesuits learned about his bold ideas, he went back to Holland, where he lived for 20 years. Throughout his life, he was persecuted and attacked by the church for his progressive ideas, which were ahead of the level of scientific development in the 16th-17th centuries.

Philosophy

The philosophical teaching of René Descartes was characterized by dualism: he believed that there is both an ideal substance and a material one. Both principles were recognized by him as independent. René Descartes’ concept also assumes the recognition of the presence of two types of entities in our world: thinking and extended. The scientist believed that the source of both entities is God. He forms them according to the same laws, creates matter in parallel with its rest and movement, and also preserves substances.

René Descartes saw a unique universal method of cognition in rationalism. At the same time, the scientist considered cognition itself a prerequisite for man to dominate the forces of nature. According to Descartes, the possibilities of reason are constrained by man’s imperfection, his differences from the perfect God. René’s reasoning about cognition in this vein, in essence, laid the foundation for rationalism.

The starting point of most of Rene Descartes’s searches in the field of philosophy was doubt in the truthfulness and infallibility of knowledge related to the generally accepted. Descartes’s quote “I think – therefore I exist” is conditioned by these considerations. The philosopher stated that each person can doubt the existence of his body and even the external world as a whole. But at the same time, this doubt will definitely remain existing.

Mathematics and physics

The main philosophical and mathematical result of Rene Descartes’ work was the writing of the book “Discourse on the Method”. The book contained several appendices. One appendix contained the basics of analytical geometry. Another appendix included rules for studying optical devices and phenomena, Descartes’ achievements in this field (he was the first to correctly formulate the law of refraction of light), and so on.

The scientist introduced the currently used exponent, the line over the expression taken under the root, and began to denote unknowns with the symbols “x, y, z” and constants with the symbols “a, b, c”. The mathematician also developed a canonical form of equations, which is still used today for solving (when the right side of the equation is zero).

Another achievement of René Descartes, important for the improvement of mathematics and physics, is the development of a coordinate system. The scientist introduced it in order to make it possible to describe the geometric properties of bodies and curves in the language of classical algebra. In other words, it was René Descartes who made it possible to analyze the equation of a curve in the Cartesian coordinate system, a special case of which is the well-known rectangular system. This innovation also made it possible to interpret negative numbers in much more detail and accurately.

The mathematician studied algebraic and “mechanical” functions, while arguing that there is no single method for studying transcendental functions. Descartes primarily studied real numbers, but began to take complex numbers into account. He introduced the concept of imaginary negative roots, associated with the concept of complex numbers.

Research in mathematics, geometry, optics and physics later became the basis for the scientific works of Euler, Newton and a number of other scientists. All mathematicians of the second half of the 17th century based their theories on the works of René Descartes.

Personal life

Little is known about René Descartes’ personal life. Contemporaries claimed that he was arrogant and silent in society, preferring solitude to company, but in the circle of close people he could show amazing activity in communication. René apparently did not have a wife.

In adulthood, he fell in love with a servant who bore him a daughter, Francine. The girl was born illegitimately, but Descartes fell deeply in love with her. At the age of five, Francine died of scarlet fever. The scientist called her death the greatest tragedy of his life.

Death

For many years, René Descartes was persecuted for his fresh outlook on science. In 1649, he moved to Stockholm, where he was invited by the Swedish Queen Christina. Descartes corresponded with the latter for many years. Christina was amazed by the scientist’s genius and promised him a quiet life in the capital of her state. Alas, René did not enjoy life in Stockholm for long: soon after moving, he caught a cold. The cold quickly developed into pneumonia. The scientist passed away on February 11, 1650.

There is an opinion that Descartes died not from pneumonia, but from poisoning. The role of poisoners could have been played by agents of the Catholic Church, which did not like the presence of a freethinking scientist next to the Queen of Sweden. The Catholic Church intended to convert the latter to its faith, which happened four years after René’s death. This version has not received objective confirmation to date, but many researchers are inclined to it.

 

Friedrich Nietzsche and the Birth of Modern Existentialism

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Friedrich Nietzsche and the Birth of Modern Existentialism

Friedrich Nietzsche is a German philosopher, thinker, poet and even composer. His non-academic teachings have become widespread not only in the scientific and philosophical community, but also far beyond its borders. Nietzsche questioned the key principles of the generally accepted norms of culture and morality, social and political relations in the 19th-20th centuries. The philosopher’s concept still causes much controversy and disagreement.

Childhood and Youth

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche was born on October 15, 1844, in the village of Röcken, located near Leipzig. His father, Karl Ludwig Nietzsche, as well as both of his grandfathers, were Lutheran priests. A few years later, the boy had a sister, Elizabeth, and a couple of years later, a brother, Ludwig Joseph. Friedrich’s younger brother died in 1849, and his sister lived a long life and passed away in 1935.

Soon after the birth of his youngest son, Karl Ludwig Nietzsche died. Friedrich’s mother took on the entire responsibility of raising him. This continued until 1858, when the now-mature young man went to study at the prestigious Pforta Gymnasium. His time at the gymnasium was fateful for Nietzsche: there he first began to write, became fascinated with reading ancient texts, and even experienced an irresistible desire to devote himself to music. There, Friedrich became acquainted with the works of Byron, Schiller, Hölderlin, and Wagner. In 1862, Nietzsche began his studies at the University of Bonn, choosing philology and theology. Student life soon bored the young student; in addition to this, he did not have good relationships with his classmates, to whom he tried to instill a progressive worldview. Therefore, Friedrich soon transferred to the University of Leipzig. One day, while walking around the city, he accidentally wandered into a second-hand bookstore and bought Arthur Schopenhauer’s The World as Will and Representation. The book impressed Nietzsche greatly and influenced his development as a philosopher.

Friedrich’s studies at the Faculty of Philology at the University of Leipzig were brilliant: already at the age of 24, the boy was invited to teach classical philology as a professor at the University of Basel. This was the first case in the European system of higher education when such a young scholar was allowed to receive the status of professor. Nevertheless, Nietzsche himself did not get much pleasure from studying, although he did not refuse to build a professorial career.

However, the philosopher did not work as a teacher for long. Taking up this post, he decided to renounce his Prussian citizenship (the University of Basel is located in Switzerland). Therefore, Nietzsche was unable to participate in the Franco-Prussian War, which took place in 1870. Switzerland took a neutral position in this confrontation and therefore allowed the professor to work only as an orderly.

Friedrich Nietzsche was not very healthy since childhood. Thus, at the age of eighteen he suffered from insomnia and migraines, at thirty, in addition to this, he almost went blind and began to experience stomach problems. He finished his work in Basel in 1879, after which he began to receive a pension and began writing books, without ceasing to fight the disease.

Philosophy

Friedrich Nietzsche’s first book was published in 1872 and was called “The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music”. Before this, the philosopher sent a number of scientific articles for publication, but had not yet published full-fledged books. His first serious work consists of 25 chapters.

In the first 15, Nietzsche tries to establish what Greek tragedy is, and in the last 10, he talks and discusses Wagner, with whom he met and was friends for some time (until the composer converted to Christianity).

“Thus Spoke Zarathustra”

No other work by the philosopher can claim the level of popularity of the book “Thus Spoke Zarathustra”. Friedrich Nietzsche received the main ideas for his famous work thanks to a trip to Rome at the end of the 19th century. There he met the writer, physician and philosopher Lou Salome. Nietzsche found her a pleasant listener and was fascinated by the flexibility of her mind. He even tried to propose to her, but Lou Salome preferred friendship to marriage.

Soon Nietzsche and Salome quarreled and never communicated again. After this, Friedrich wrote the first part of the work “Thus Spoke Zarathustra”, in which modern researchers unmistakably guess the influence of the philosopher’s soul mate and ideas about their “ideal friendship”. The second and third parts of the work were published in 1884, and the fourth appeared in printed form in 1885. Nietzsche published 40 copies at his own expense. The style of this work changes as the narrative progresses: it is sometimes poetic, sometimes comic, sometimes close to poetry again. In the book, Friedrich first introduced the term superman, and also began to develop the theory of the will to power. At that time, these ideas were poorly developed, and he later developed his concept in the works “Beyond Good and Evil” and “On the Genealogy of Morals”. The fourth book of the work is dedicated to the story of how Zarathustra ridiculed the admirers of his own teachings, whom he hated.

The Will to Power

Almost all of the philosopher’s works contain a moral about the will to power as the basic concept of his theory. According to Nietzsche, domination represents the causal nature, the basis of existence, and also a way of existence. In this regard, Friedrich contrasted the will to power with the setting of goals. He said that choosing a goal and moving towards it can already be called a full-fledged act of domination.

Personal life

Friedrich Nietzsche repeatedly changed his views on the female sex, so the popularity of his quote “Women are the source of all stupidity and unreason in the world” does not fully reflect his views. Thus, the philosopher managed to be a misogynist, a feminist, and an anti-feminist. His only love was probably Lou Salome. There is no information about the philosopher’s relationships with other women.

For many years, the philosopher’s biography was closely connected with the life of his sister Elizabeth, who took care of her brother and helped him. However, discord gradually began in this relationship. Bernard Forster, one of the ideologists of the anti-Semitic movement, became Elizabeth Nietzsche’s husband. She even went with her husband to Paraguay, where supporters of this movement intended to create a German colony. Due to financial difficulties, Forster soon committed suicide, and the widow returned to her native country.

Nietzsche did not share his sister’s anti-Semitic views and criticized her for such a position. Relations between brother and sister improved only towards the end of the latter’s life, when he, weakened by illness, needed help and care. As a result, Elizabeth was given the opportunity to dispose of her brother’s literary works. She sent Nietzsche’s works for publication only after making her own edits, which distorted some of the philosopher’s teachings.

In 1930, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche supported the Nazi government and invited Hitler to be an honorary guest of the Nietzsche Museum and Archives, which she created. The leader of the fascist movement was pleased with the visits and awarded the philosopher’s sister a lifelong pension. This was partly the reason why Nietzsche is often associated in the minds of ordinary people with fascist ideology.

Death

The philosopher was often misunderstood by both his close friends and the general public. His ideology began to gain popularity only in the late 1880s, and at the beginning of the 20th century, his works were translated into many languages ​​of the world. In 1889, Friedrich Nietzsche’s creative work ceased due to a clouding of his mind.

There is an opinion that the philosopher was shocked by the scene of the beating of a horse. This attack became the cause of a progressive mental illness. The writer spent the last months of his life in the Basel psychiatric hospital. After some time, his elderly mother took him to his parents’ home, but she soon died, causing the philosopher to suffer an apoplectic stroke.

Epicurus: The Philosopher Who Advocated Pleasure as the Greatest Good

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Epicurus: The Philosopher Who Advocated Pleasure as the Greatest Good

The essence of the doctrine of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus is contained in the quote “Enjoyment is the beginning and end of a blessed life.” A true atheist recognized the existence of higher powers, but denied their influence on man. The works of the founder of the worldview of the Hellenistic era have practically not survived, but his ideas have interested scientists for two millennia.

Table of Contents

Fate

Information about the fate of Epicurus is contained in the works of Diogenes Laërtius and Lucretius Carus. These are the only reliable sources, thanks to which not only his ideas, but also photos of sculptures have been recreated.

The great thinker was born on the island of Samos in 342-341 BC in the family of a school teacher Neocles. Interest in science and the search for the meaning of life arose at the age of 12-13, after reading the works of Democritus. In 324 BC, the son and father moved to Athens.

At the age of 32, the young man opened his own school on the island of Lesbos. In 308 BC, he and his students returned to Athens, bought a plot of land with gardens, and remained there until the end of his days. That is why the followers of his dogmas are called the philosophers of Sade.

According to Diogenes Laërtius, the founder of the school lived to be 70 years old. The cause of death was kidney stones.

Philosophy

The school of Sade gave birth to the movement of Epicureanism, whose followers were called freethinkers during the Renaissance. Despite the fact that the essence of the theory was compared with the ideas of its predecessors, the basis for the formation of the concept was polemics and opposition to authoritative opinions.

During the life of the founder of the school, Sade’s teaching became an opponent of Stoicism, in which the leading role in knowledge was given to reason. The divine was also studied from the point of view of the material world. Three main aspects are covered by Diogenes Laërtius.

The first of them is ethics. This theory of knowledge comes down to the position that pleasure is the beginning and end of life, as well as the measure of good. However, one should strive not to satisfy super-needs, but to get rid of “ataraxia” – suffering. Epicurus believed that those who torment themselves with unnecessary desires are unhappy. True pleasure will be received by those who are content with little.

The next aspect was called canonics. Ancient Greek thinkers and sages interpreted the concept of truth in different ways. The author of the materialistic concept took sensory perceptions and sensations as the criterion for evaluation. Thus, the Epicurean believed that material objects consist of particles that penetrate the senses. Thanks to the systematic nature of perception, anticipations arise, which become true knowledge.

But reason, in contrast to the theories of Plato and Aristotle, becomes an obstacle to study, since it brings a subjective picture into judgment. This concept became the main opponent of Stoicism in the Hellenistic era.

And finally, the aspect called physics. The goal of natural philosophy is to find an explanation for the origin of the world in order to get rid of the fear of non-existence. Epicurus preached the idea that the Universe was not created by higher powers. It’s all about atoms that move in an endless void. Unlike previous theories, his ideas gave the main role to the deviation from the trajectory of these particles. Due to chaos, atoms combine into complex bodies – people and gods.

Therefore, there is no need to fear death – molecules are carried throughout the Universe, and the soul ceases to exist along with the body. There are no forces that could influence the fate of a person. Everything arises and disappears by chance without deep meaning.
The dogmas of the founder of the materialistic doctrine of gods are interesting. He claimed that higher powers exist in the border worlds. But, according to natural philosophy, they have no influence on human life, therefore, the fear of them is groundless.

Memory

The works of the ancient Greek sage number at least 300 compositions, but only fragments reached his contemporaries. These are three letters-appeals to Pythocles, Herodotus, Menoeceus, as well as quotes set out in the work of Titus Lucretius Carus.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: The Philosopher Who Shaped the Enlightenment

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau: The Philosopher Who Shaped the Enlightenment

On June 28, 1712, Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva. The pedagogical works and theories of this French philosopher and writer from the Enlightenment era are well-known. In philosophy, Rousseau is credited as founding romanticism. According to certain scholars, Jean-Jacques Rousseau contributed to the Great French Revolution in some way.

Early Life and Adolescence

The French-Swiss author Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s early years were not carefree. Isaac Rousseau, a watchmaker and part-time dancing instructor, took care of his kid after his mother, Suzanne Bernard, passed away during childbirth. Although the guy was devastated by his wife’s passing, he made an effort to focus his affection on Jean-Jacques’s upbringing. This ended up having a big impact on how the younger Rousseau developed.

The little boy read “Astrea” with his father and studied Plutarch’s writings from an early age. Jean-Jacques purposefully burned his hand, placing himself in the role of the legendary Scaevola. An armed onslaught soon forced the senior Rousseau to flee Geneva, while the younger Rousseau stayed with his uncle in their house.

The father had no idea that his kid would grow up to be one of the greatest philosophers of this century.

Afterwards, Jean-Jacques’s family sent him to Lambercier, a Protestant boarding school. Rousseau was moved to a notary for instruction a year later, and then to an engraver. The young man had a heavy task, but he still found time to read. Jean-Jacques learned to steal, lie, and play pretend in school.

Rousseau, who was sixteen at the time, fled Geneva and took refuge in a Turin convent. After spending nearly four months there, the future philosopher joined the aristocrats’ employ. Jean-Jacques was employed as a porter. The youngster received basic language instruction in Italian from the count’s son. But it was Madame de Warens, Rousseau’s “mother,” who taught him how to write.

In a few of his handwritten works, Jean-Jacques Rousseau includes fascinating details about his life story. This enables us to discover that the young man’s prior employment before turning to philosophy and literature was as a secretary and a home instructor.

Literature And Philosophy

First and foremost, Jean-Jacques Rousseau is a philosopher. The works of “Emile,” “The New Heloise,” and “The Social Contract” are still examined by scientists. The author attempted to elucidate the causes of social disparity in society through his writings. The first to investigate whether sovereignty might be established through a contract was Rousseau.

According to Jean-Jacques, the law is a manifestation of the collective will. Its purpose was to shield society’s delegates from the government, which was powerless to uphold the law. Property equality is feasible, but only when the collective will is expressed. According to Rousseau, citizens ought to voluntarily abide by the law in order to regulate the actions of the government. Rousseau brought public legislative initiative, limited the durations of parliamentary powers, mandated mandates, and created a referendum thanks to Jean-Jacques.

Rousseau’s seminal work “New Heloise” The novel prominently displays Richardson’s “Clarissa Harlot” comments. According to Jean-Jacques, this book was the best epistolary ever written. 163 letters are included in “New Heloise”. French society was charmed by this work since, at the time, novel writing in this style was seen as fashionable.

“New Heloise” narrates the tale of the protagonist’s tragic destiny. She is under pressure to be chaste, which keeps her from experiencing love and giving in to the seductive temptation. People adored the work, which established Rousseau as the founder of romanticism in philosophy. However, the author’s career as a writer started a little earlier. Rousseau worked in the embassy in Venice somewhere in the middle of the eighteenth century. The man soon discovers that creating is his calling.

He met someone in Paris who turned out to be crucial to the philosopher’s destiny. Paul Holbach, Denis Diderot, Etienne de Condillac, Jean d’Alembert, and Grimm were among the people Jean-Jacques met. His early comedies and tragedies were not well received, but in 1749, while incarcerated, he happened to read in a newspaper about a competition.

The author was inspired by this. Jean-Jacques became well-liked by the populace following the performance of the opera “The Village Sorcerer.” This incident happened in 1753. Village morality were attested to by the melody’s warmth and naturalness. Louis XV even performed Colette’s aria from the piece.

However, “Discourses” and “The Village Sorcerer” caused Rousseau further issues in his life. Grimm and Holbach had unfavorable opinions of Jean-Jacques’s work. Voltaire adopted an enlightened stance. The philosophers believed that Rousseau’s work’s primary issue was the plebeian democracy it included.

The autobiographical work “Confession” by Jean-Jacques has been analyzed by historians with great enthusiasm. Sincerity and truthfulness permeate every aspect of the work. Rousseau exposed his soul to the public, highlighting both his virtues and vices. The book’s quotations are still included in biographies of the author and philosopher, as well as in assessments of Rousseau’s output and personality.

Teaching

The natural man, who is unaffected by social circumstances, was one of educator Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s concerns. The philosopher thought that a child’s development is influenced by their schooling. Rousseau developed a concept for education using this principle. The primary educational concepts in Jean-Jacques’s book “Emile, or On Education” were introduced. The author claims that this treatise is the greatest and most significant. Rousseau attempted to communicate ideas of pedagogy using visual imagery.

The philosopher did not fit the system of education and upbringing. The fact that these customs were founded on churchliness rather than democracy, which was then popular throughout Europe, ran counter to Jean-Jacques’ theories. Rousseau emphasized that children should be allowed to develop their innate abilities. The primary goal of education is to facilitate each person’s natural growth.

Jean-Jacques feels that there should be a significant shift in the way people think about raising children. This is because a person continuously learns new things about himself and the world around him from the time of birth until death. Programs for education need to be developed in light of this. What a person needs is not a decent person and a good Christian. Sincere in his belief that there are oppressors and oppressed, but no fatherland or citizens, was Rousseau.

Parents were advised by Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s educational theories to instill in their children a desire to labor, self-respect, and a sense of freedom and independence. Never should one give in to pressure or indulge in whims, especially those of children. Simultaneously, one must reject the child’s subordination. The philosopher was primarily concerned in giving teenagers more parental responsibility.

A person’s upbringing is greatly influenced by their labor, since it helps the youngster develop a sense of duty and accountability for their own activities. This will, of course, assist the child in making a life in the future. Rousseau defined labor education as a person’s improvement on the moral, intellectual, and physical levels. Parents should place a high priority on their child’s needs and interests developing.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that a child needed to have a certain quality developed in them at every stage of growing up. Period of physical development: up to two years. Sensory from age 2 to age 12, mental from age 12 to age 15, and moral from age 15 to age 18. The primary responsibility of the mother and father is to be persistent and patient, but they should never “break” the child by teaching him the incorrect ideals of the contemporary world. The baby’s health will be strengthened and fortitude and endurance will be developed through exercise and hardening.

A teenager must learn to grasp the world via their senses as they become older, not through books. Literature is good, but it feeds young brains the worldview of someone else.

As a result, the child will stop growing intellectually and instead start to accept other people’s remarks at face value. The fundamental tenet of mental education was communication: when a kid feels comfortable asking questions and getting answers, parents and teachers should foster that environment. According to Rousseau, the study of geography, biology, chemistry, and physics is crucial for human development.

At 15, growing up is characterized by frequent emotions and total emotional outbursts that overwhelm teens. During this time, it’s crucial to strive to develop moral principles in the youngster rather than overdoing it when it comes to moralizing. There’s no need to assign strangers this obligation because society is already so morally reprehensible. It’s critical at this point to cultivate compassion in thoughts, attitudes, and will. This will be simpler to accomplish this distance from large cities and their temptations.

A young person must go to becoming familiar with public tasks as soon as they turn 20. It’s interesting that female delegates were permitted to bypass this phase. Civic responsibilities are an expression unique to men. An ideal of personality that ran counter to 18th-century society is traced in the writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

Although Rousseau’s writings transformed the field of education, the authorities saw danger in them, believing that they threatened the foundations of public opinion. The book “Emile, or On Education” was set on fire, and Jean-Jacques was placed under arrest. Rousseau, however, was able to hide in Switzerland. Though the French authorities disapproved of the philosopher’s ideas, they had an impact on teaching at the time.

Individual Life

Because of his financial situation, Jean-Jacques was unable to wed a noblewoman; instead, he married Therese Levasseur. The woman was employed as a maid in a Parisian hotel. Therese’s sharp wit and intelligence did not set her apart. The girl was raised in a rural household. She was not educated, and she had no idea what time it was. Levasseur seemed crude among society.

However, Rousseau remained married till the end of his life. Following twenty years of marriage, the guy and Teresa were married in a church. The couple had five kids, but the younger ones were taken to an orphanage right away. Jean-Jacques attributed this behavior on a shortage of funds. In addition, the philosopher said that the kids kept Rousseau from pursuing his passions.

Demise

July 2, 1778, saw the passing of Jean-Jacques Rousseau at Château d’Ermenonville, his rural home. In 1777, a friend of Rousseau’s brought him here after noticing a decline in his health. The friend arranged a performance on an island in the park to amuse the visitor. Jean-Jacques requested that a burial be set up for him here after falling in love with the location.

A buddy made the decision to grant Rousseau’s final wish. The Isle of Willows is thought to be the public figure’s formal resting site. Every year, hundreds of admirers flocked to the park to see the martyr that Schiller had painted with such vivid detail in his poetry. Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s remains were moved to the Pantheon during the Great French Revolution. However, a terrible incident happened 20 years later: two thieves took the philosopher’s ashes at night and dumped them into a lime-filled hole.

Confucius: The Sage Who Shaped Chinese Philosophy

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Confucius: The Sage Who Shaped Chinese Philosophy

The name of this philosopher is familiar to everyone. Confucius is the most famous Chinese. The teachings of the ancient thinker form the basis of the state ideology. It influenced the life of East Asia. Confucianism was not inferior to Buddhism in its significance in China for a long time. Although religious issues are not touched upon in the philosophy of Confucianism, the name of Confucius was inscribed in the religious pantheon.

Confucius is an innovator in the idea of ​​building a moral, harmonious society. Following the rules of philosophy, a person will be in harmony with himself and the world around him. The popularity of Confucius’s aphorisms and judgments has not faded even 20 centuries after his death.

Childhood and youth

The biography of the Kun clan, of which Confucius is a descendant, is described in detail by historians of medieval China. Confucius is a descendant of Wei-tzu, a commander of the Emperor of the Zhou Dynasty Chen-wang. For his loyalty to the emperor, Wei-tzu was given the principality of Song and the title of zhu hou. By the time Confucius was born, the Wei-tzu clan had already become impoverished and moved to the kingdom of Lu in northern China. Confucius’s father, Shuliang He, had two wives. The first gave birth to nine daughters. The second gave birth to a son, but the weak boy died.

In 551 BC, the 63-year-old Shuliang He was born to his concubine Yan Zhengzai, who was barely seventeen at the time. According to legend, she went up to a hill under a mulberry tree to give birth. At the moment of the baby’s birth, a spring gushed out from under the ground, in which he was washed. Afterwards, the water stopped flowing. The father did not live long after the birth of his son. When Confucius was one and a half years old, Shuliang He left this world. Yan Zhengzai, who was disliked by her senior wives, left her husband’s house and moved closer to her relatives, to the city of Qufu. Yan Zhengzai and the boy lived independently. Confucius had to experience hardships from childhood.

Confucius’ mother instilled in the boy that he should be a worthy successor to the family line. Although the small family lived in poverty, the boy worked hard, mastering the knowledge necessary for a Chinese aristocrat. Particular attention was paid to the arts. Diligence in his studies bore fruit: 20-year-old Confucius was appointed to be responsible for the barns of the Ji family of the Lu principality in eastern China. And then he was put in charge of the livestock.

Teaching

Confucius lived during the decline of the Zhou Empire. The emperor gradually lost power, handing it over to the rulers of individual principalities. The patriarchal structure of the state declined. Civil wars led to impoverishment of the people.

In 528 BC, Yan Zhengzai, Confucius’ mother, died. Following the tradition of mourning a relative, he went into a three-year retirement. This retirement allowed the philosopher to study ancient books and create a philosophical treatise on the rules of relationships in building a harmonious state.

When the philosopher was 44 years old, he was appointed governor of the residence of the Principality of Lu. For some time he was the head of the judicial service. From the height of his post, Confucius called upon those in power to punish the people only in the case of disobedience, and in other cases – “to explain to people their duties and teach.”

Confucius worked for some time as an official of several principalities. But the impossibility of reconciling himself with the new state policy forced him to resign. He began to travel around China with his students, preaching philosophical teachings.

Only at the age of 60 did Confucius return to his native Qufu and did not leave until his death. Confucius spent the rest of his life with his students, working on the systematization of the wise literary heritage of China: the Book of Songs, the Book of Changes and other volumes of Chinese philosophy. Of the classical heritage of Confucius himself, only one has been reliably authenticated – Spring and Autumn.

Chinese historians count about 3 thousand students of the philosopher, but only 26 are reliably known. Yan-yuan is considered Confucius’ favorite student.

Based on quotes from the ancient philosopher, his students compiled a book of sayings, Lun Yu (Conversations and Judgments). Da Xue (Great Teaching) was created, a book about the path of human improvement, and Zhong Yong (Book of the Mean), about the path of attaining harmony.

Confucianism

During the Han Dynasty (2nd century BC – 3rd century AD), Confucius’ teachings were elevated to the rank of ideology of the Celestial Empire. At that time, Confucianism became the pillar of Chinese morality and shaped the way of life of the Chinese people. Confucianism played a decisive role in shaping the appearance of Chinese civilization.

The basis of Confucian philosophy is the construction of a society based on harmony. Each member of this society stands in his place and performs his assigned function. The basis of relations between the upper and lower classes is loyalty. The philosophy is based on five main qualities inherent in a righteous person: respect, justice, ritual, wisdom, decency.

” Ren ” – “respect”, “generosity”, “kindness”, a fundamental category in Chinese philosophy. This is the main of the five virtues that a person should possess. ” Ren ” includes three main components: love and compassion for people, the correct attitude of two people to each other, the attitude of a person to the surrounding world, including – to inanimate objects. A person who has comprehended ” Ren ” is in balance with the surrounding world, fulfilling the “golden rule of morality”: “do not impose on others what you do not want for yourself.” The symbol of ” Ren ” is a tree.

” I ” – “justice”. A person who follows “I” does not do so out of selfish motives, but because the path of “I” is the only true one. It is based on reciprocity: your parents raised you, and in gratitude you honor them. “I” balances “Ren”, giving a person firmness in the fight against selfishness. A noble person seeks justice. The symbol of “I” is metal.

” Li ” – “ritual”, means “decency”, “ethics”, “ceremonies”. In this concept, the Chinese philosopher put the possibility of smoothing out conflicts that interfere with the state of world unity through rituals of behavior. A person who has mastered “Li” not only respects elders, but also understands their role in society. The symbol of “Li” is fire.

” Zhi ” – “wisdom”. “Zhi” is the quality of a noble person. “Common sense” distinguishes a person from an animal, “Zhi” frees from doubts, not giving free rein to stubbornness. Fights stupidity. The symbol in Confucianism is water.

” Xin ” – “trustworthiness”. Trustworthiness is considered to be that which feels good. Another meaning is conscientiousness and ease. “Xin” balances “ritual”, preventing insincerity. “Xin” corresponds to Earth.

In contrast to Confucianism, a number of philosophical schools are widespread in China. There are about a hundred schools in total. The main place is occupied by Taoism, founded by Lao Tzu and Zhuang Tzu.

In his philosophical teachings, Lao Tzu emphasizes our inseparable connection with the cosmos. For each person, there is only one path, predetermined from above. People are not inclined to influence the world order. The path of humanity is humility. Lao Tzu calls on people not to try to influence the course of events around them. Taoism is a philosophy with a mystical beginning, appealing to human emotions. Confucianism with its rationalism appeals to the human mind.

In Europe, Confucius became known in the mid-17th century, with the advent of fashion for everything connected with Eastern culture. The first edition of the Lun Yu in Latin was published in 1687. At that time, Jesuit missionary work was gaining momentum, including in China. The first visitors from the Celestial Empire arrived in Europe, which fueled public interest in the unknown and exotic.

Personal Life

At the age of 19, Confucius married Kikoan Shi, a girl from a noble family. The family had their first child, Li, better known as Bo-Yu. Then Kikoan Shi gave birth to a daughter.

Death

At the age of 66, the philosopher became a widower. In the twilight of his life, he devoted all his time to his students in his home in the city of Qufu. Confucius died in 479 BC, at the age of 72. Before his death, he fell into a seven-day sleep.

In the city of Qufu (Shandong Province, Eastern China), a temple was built on the site of the ancient thinker’s house. After the construction of adjoining buildings and extensions, the structure grew into a temple complex. The burial place of Confucius and his disciples has been a pilgrimage site for 2,000 years. In 1994, UNESCO included the temple complex, Confucius’s house, and the forest around it in the “List of World Cultural Heritage Sites.”

Ludwig Wittgenstein: The Man Who Rewrote the Rules of Philosophy

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Ludwig Wittgenstein: The Man Who Rewrote the Rules of Philosophy

The theory of ideal language was created in the 20th century by the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. Its foundation was logical mathematics. The idea of logical atomism was created by the physicist.

Early Life and Adolescence

On April 26, 1889, Ludwig was born in Vienna. The boy was the youngest of a steel magnate’s and his wife’s eight children. The boys were homeschooled as children since their father did not believe in public education and wanted them to become well-known industrialists.

Wittgenstein Sr.’s family suffered because of his harsh and uncompromising nature. Out of the five young men, three took their own lives. Hans, the oldest brother, was regarded as a genius. He escaped to the United States in 1902 and passed away inexplicably.

Rudi, a Berlin Academy chemistry student, poisoned himself with cyanide-laced milk in a bar in 1904. Some stories claim that he was gay and that his friend’s passing grieved him greatly. By the end of World War I, Kurt was in charge of the Austrian army. In the fall of 1918, the officer took his own life.

Paul and Ludwig were able to attend a state school when the mom gave up. The future philosopher was reclusive, failed to achieve academic achievement, and struggled to relate to his peers.

While a student at the Technische Hochschule Berlin, Wittgenstein developed an interest in engineering and aircraft design. He graduated with a diploma from Manchester’s Victoria University in 1908. Ludwig’s introduction to Gottlob Frege’s writings was a pivotal point in his life story since it inspired him to consider the philosophical underpinnings of logic and mathematics.

Individual Life

Wittgenstein was in love with both males and females. In 1926–1928, he assisted his sister in building a house in Vienna, where he met Margaretha Respinger, a Swedish woman. The girl resolutely put up with her partner’s austere lifestyle for five years, but a vacation to Norway was the last straw. Respinger left the philosopher there after realizing she could never be his wife.

Ben Richards, who was involved in the Austrian’s personal life in the 1940s, Francis Skinner, who he partnered with in 1930, and David Pinsent, with whom the philosopher had a relationship in 1912, are among Ludwig’s chosen ones.

Philosophies

Wittgenstein arrived in Cambridge in 1911 and became Bertrand Russell’s friend and assistant.

The young man rose to prominence as one of the wealthiest Europeans following the death of his father in 1913. He gave some of his income to creative individuals and distributed the rest among his family members. In the Norwegian settlement of Skjolden, Ludwig rented a floor in a farm house and penned a piece titled “Notes on Logic.”

His studies were connected to theories on language means. He suggested categorizing contradictions as lies and tautology in sentences as truth, or not categorizing them at all.

Wittgenstein volunteered to go to war in 1914. After being apprehended three years later, he penned the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus while imprisoned. The composition was released in 1921. Within the European professional community, it was a success. Ludwig was already employed as a teacher in a remote school at that point.

Gardening in a monastery took the place of teaching for a while. The scholar then returned to teaching, this time at a school close to Trattenbach. Here, he authored a brand-new book that became the author’s second book to be published in his lifetime: a children’s dictionary of spelling and pronunciation.

He thought that the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus had been misunderstood and that some of the judgments described were wrong, so in 1926 he went back to work on it. Seven aphorisms were combined in Wittgenstein’s work and were accompanied with explanations.

The primary concept revolved around the similarity between the world’s structure and the logical structure of language. According to the theory’s creator, it is made up of facts rather than objects. Phrases develop into language components. This idea holds that statements that defy the rules of logic are meaningless and that language is codified and subject to logic’s laws.

Later on, Wittgenstein came up with fresh concepts that showed language to be a dynamic system of contexts that can contain contradictions. According to the revised idea, philosophy’s job was to eliminate conflicts and establish precise guidelines for the application of linguistic units.

Ludwig Wittgenstein, the father of the linguistic philosophy movement, had a significant impact on the development of Anglo-American analytical philosophy. Furthermore, his theories served as the foundation for the development of the logical positivist theory. Experts view his language-game-focused “Notes on Color” as a seminal contribution to logic. The scientist enjoyed international and domestic demand for his works. Alexander Zinoviev, a Soviet philosopher, likewise focused on his studies.

The Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus was approved as a Cambridge dissertation in 1929. Wittgenstein was appointed to a Trinity College lectureship.

In 1938, following the Anschluss, the physicist obtained German citizenship. As per the Nuremberg Laws, the man’s status was categorized as Jewish. Adolf Hitler gave a privileged racial status to a select few people, including the philosopher and his family members. The family’s financial situation and status had an impact on this. Ludwig became a British citizen in 1939.

The scientist gave philosophy and mathematics lectures at Cambridge at this time, which he found intolerable given the armed conflicts going on around them. He started working as an orderly in a hospital in London in 1941. Wittgenstein stayed anonymous inside the hospital and stole medications from pharmacies under a fictitious name.

The philosopher addressed his Oxford peers at the Jowett Society in 1947. He went to write full time after leaving Cambridge University. Ludwig stayed in Connemara following his trip to Ireland. He went to see pals in New York City in 1949. He composed Philosophical Investigations at this time, which was released in 1953. Within the book was an experiment known as “Bug in a Box.” The study’s concept provoked reflection on the nature of language and the manner in which opinions about the outside world are expressed.

Demise

In April 1951, the philosopher passed away. Prostate cancer was the cause of death. The scientist was buried in Cambridge, near the chapel of St. Giles, in accordance with Catholic customs. Posthumous publications of his books “Being and Time,” “On Certainty,” and others were made possible.

Ludwig Wittgenstein maintained notebooks, and those close to the philosopher left letters and autobiographies that detailed his character and routines. The Austrian’s life was described by Ray Monk in his book “The Debt of Genius”. These days, philosophy textbooks and fiction books contain photos of the researcher.

Karl Marx’s Vision: A Deep Dive into His Theories and Impact

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Karl Marx’s Vision: A Deep Dive into His Theories and Impact

The creator of Marxism, Karl Marx is the socialism’s ideologist and the author of the influential work “Capital”.

In the German city of Trier, on May 5, 1818, the future philosopher was born to Heinrich and Henrietta Marx, who were of Jewish ethnicity. His parents were from two sizable rabbinic families. Karl’s father was a lawyer who converted to Lutheranism in order to further his professional life. In 1824, his mother and kids had baptism, which happened seven years after her husband’s. In a big family, Karl Marx was the third child. The boy’s upbringing was greatly influenced by his father, who was a supporter of Kantian philosophy and the principles of the Enlightenment.

UNSPECIFIED – CIRCA 1865: Karl Marx (1818-1883), philosopher and German politician. (Photo by Roger Viollet Collection/Getty Images)

Young Karl was first exposed to Renaissance literature and antiquated philosophy by Heinrich’s friend Ludwig von Westphalen. The young man completed his studies in mathematics, Latin, German, Greek, and French at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Gymnasium in Trier in 1835. He then enrolled at the University of Bonn before moving to Berlin. Philosophy, law, and history were taught to pupils via lectures. Marx developed his own worldview based on his own study of the writings of other philosophers, which drew him to the atheistic and revolutionary features of Hegel’s philosophy.

Karl Marx, at the age of 24, published a dissertation on the analysis of Epicurus and Democritus’ philosophical beliefs under the supervision of Ludwig von Westphalen. Karl Marx was particularly interested in the writings of Feuerbach, Smith, Ricardo, Saint-Simon, and other modern philosophers in addition to classical philosophy.

Political and Social Action

Marx had planned to join the University of Bonn as a professor at the start of his career, but in the late 1930s, the reactionary government started a purge of the university’s faculty in an attempt to crush any communist groups. Marx gave up on teaching after Professor Bruno Bauer was sacked, following Ludwig Feuerbach.

Marx’s “A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Law” was released a year later. A employment at the “Rheinische Zeitung” allowed the young guy to write a political column. The reigning government was strongly attacked by the philosopher. Finally, the authorities became enraged when Marx started advocating for the downfall of the current dictatorship from the publication’s pages. Karl became interested in the topic after realizing that, despite his position as newspaper editor, he knew very little about the workings of political economy.

The younger journalist-philosopher, who is supported by Prussia’s populace, is courted by the ruling class to join them. Marx, however, is unwilling to make concessions to the police state. The young thinker faces forced deportation as a result of his decision. Karl Marx and his family hurriedly left their native country and relocated to the French capital in the fall of 1843.

The philosopher met Heinrich Heine, the poet from Germany, and Friedrich Engels, his future collaborator, in Paris. The reformer traveled among radical circles in France for two years. Marx got familiar with the theories of P. Proudhon and M. Bakunin, the founders of anarchism.

Karl Marx relocated to Belgium after 1845. The philosopher joined Engels in the covert international society known as the “Union of the Just,” which was founded in Brussels by German nationals. The two activists were hired by the members of the underground to write the communist society’s program. The “Manifesto of the Communist Party” was penned by Marx and Engels together, and it was first published in restricted print in a London printing company in early 1848.

The communist theoretician Marx is forced to flee Belgium by the government that same year. He spends a month in Paris before returning to Germany. The revolutionary journal “Neue Rheinische Zeitung” is launched in Cologne under the direction of Marx and Engels. However, after a year, the publication is discontinued because workers’ uprisings in the Saxon, Rhineland, and Southwest regions of Germany were put down. Repressions start.

The London Era

Karl’s position with the authorities is compromised by his work for a political newspaper, leading to his family’s emigration to London in the early 1950s. In 1867, the primary work of Marx’s biography, Capital, was published in Great Britain. Marx put a lot of effort into studying a wide range of scientific subjects, with social philosophy, political economy, mathematics, agrochemistry, and mineralogy receiving particular attention. Marx’s family was deeply impoverished at first in London, but his friend Engels soon stepped in to help the philosopher, providing free financial support for the huge family.

First International (also known as the “International Workingmen’s Association”) was founded in 1864, spearheaded by Karl Marx. The core members of the group at first included trade unionists, French socialists, anarchists, and Italian republicans. Marx’s group relocated to New York in response to the Paris Commune’s defeat in 1872, but the community there too vanished after 4 years. The Second International, which carried forth the principles of the First International, didn’t start operating until 1889.

Marxist

The core ideas of Karl Marx’s ideology emerged in the middle of the 1940s. The worldview of the scientist rested on the theories of Ludwig Feuerbach, with whom Marx at first agreed before delving into polemics. The philosopher compiled the ideas of the political and philosophical schools in Germany, England, and France in his own writings. Karl Marx developed a coherent, comprehensive system of ideas on materialism, scientific socialism, and the labor movement based on the material he read.

Historical Materialism

The German Ideology, Marx and Engels’ joint effort, introduced the idea of “materialistic history.” The “Critique of Political Economy” and the “Manifesto of the Communist Party” both included further extensions of this theory. Marx arrived logically at the well-known equation “Being determines consciousness.” The scientist contends that the productive forces of a society serve as the foundation for all other social institutions, including politics, law, religion, and the arts.

Maintaining equilibrium between the productive forces and productive relations—which, when out of balance, might spark a social revolution—is society’s primary goal. Karl Marx distinguished between the characteristics of the slave, feudal, bourgeois, and communist regimes in his theory of materialistic history. Socialism is the lowest stage of communism, whereas communism proper, which includes the abolition of all financial institutions, is the upper step.

Communism in Science

Karl Marx saw class conflict as the main factor behind social development within the context of the idea of progress in human history. Marx and Engels believed that the proletariat would be the class that brought about the end of capitalism and the creation of a new, global classless society. A global revolution would be needed for this.

Socialism and “Capital”

The book “Capital” is where Karl Marx most completely expounded on his theory of the capitalism economy. With the help of his friend Friedrich Engels, the philosopher’s final two volumes were only released after his passing. The first book was released six years before to the scientist’s passing. Written five years before the first volume of “Capital” was published, Karl Marx’s book “Theories of Surplus Value” was his fourth volume of writings.

The essay’s text highlights the problems with the law of value and the field of capital production. The formulas for labor force, capital, constant and variable capital, and absolute and relative (qualitative) surplus value are developed. Karl Marx’s thesis holds that capitalism always causes economic crises by creating a difference between variable and constant capital. This eventually undermines the system and gradually replaces private property with public property.

Individual Life

Karl Marx encountered the first beautiful woman of Trier when he was still a student. Despite the young thinker being four years older than Countess Jenny of Westphalen, a turbulent affair nonetheless ensued. To protect the young student, the aristocracy turned down several worthy suitors. The young couple had been secretly engaged for six years because the bride’s German aristocratic family did not approve of the aspirational Jewish philosopher and writer. However, this did not stop the couple from being married in Kreuznach in 1843.

Later, the Marx family was hounded and helped to be finally expelled from the country by Jenny’s half-brother, who held the position of Minister of the Interior for eight years in Prussia. Ludwig von Krosigk, incidentally, was the great-nephew of Karl Marx’s wife and served as the Third Reich’s finance minister before becoming its final prime minister.

Marx’s marriage proved to be very robust and long-lasting. In addition to being his devoted spouse, the philosopher’s wife was also his companion in arms. Jenny was Karl Marx’s book assistant. Four of the seven children born to this devoted couple passed away at an early age. The author’s three daughters achieved fame. Jenny, the oldest, was a journalist, a political activist, and Paul Lafargue’s wife. Laura was Charles Longuet’s wife and a socialist from France. Edward Aveling’s wife was Eleanor. Historians credit Karl Marx with fathering the family’s domestic Elena Demuth’s child. Engels obtained custody of the boy following the death of the philosopher.

Demise

The long-ill Marx’s wife passed away in 1878. Jenny has spent three years fighting cancer. Karl’s loss shattered him, and on March 14, 1883, he passed away from pleurisy. Marx was interred in Highgate Cemetery beside his spouse.

There were ten participants in the parade, all of them were Marx associates. Karl Marx’s unpublished writings were edited by Friedrich Engels, who also had a significant impact on the propagation of Marx’s theories.

Thomas Aquinas: The Architect of Scholasticism

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Thomas Aquinas: The Architect of Scholasticism

The most renowned Catholic religious philosopher who was able to reconcile Christian ideas with reason and logic is Thomas Aquinas. Theologian’s brief life story was jam-packed with insightful observations, foundational works (such as “Summa Theologica”), supernatural revelations, and healings. The development of five arguments for God’s existence is the primary accomplishment of the Italian philosopher.

Destiny

Thomas Aquinas, also known as Thomas (Thomas) Aquinas, was most likely born at the castle of Roccasecca on January 25, 1225, in the Italian city of Aquino (now Lazio). King Roger II employed his father, Landolf Aquinas, as a knight, and his mother, Theodora, was a Neapolitan who reared seven children.

Thomas’s parents followed the route of Landolf’s brother Sinibald, who was abbot of the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino, while the older boys studied military affairs. The boy ended up in a church monastery when he was five years old, then the University of Naples in 1239. Here, Thomas Aquinas met Aristotle, Maimonides, the Jewish theologian, and Averroes, a Western Arabic philosopher, whose ideas impacted the theological teachings of the Italian.

The young philosopher made the decision to enlist in the Catholic Order of Preaching Brothers at the age of 19. The family of Thomas Aquinas disagreed with this notion. The Order members attempted to hide the thinker in Rome to prevent Theodora from interfering with her son’s destiny; but, he was apprehended by his siblings during their journey.

The father imprisoned his kid for two years in an attempt to make him refuse to join the monastic order. It is said that the brothers once took a prostitute to the “prison” in order to force her to violate her vow of celibacy. With a heated log, Thomas Aquinas defended himself against her.

Diego Velázquez’s painting, The Temptation of St. Thomas Aquinas, depicts the young man’s triumph over temptation. The painting shows a weary Thomas being held by an angel while wearing a monk’s habit. Behind him stands another angelic messenger, and a startled-looking woman looks over his shoulder. There’s a blackened wood at the thinker’s feet on the floor.

The philosopher adhered to his celibacy vow until his passing; in its broadest sense, Thomas Aquinas valued scholasticism over his personal life. He was single and had no kids.

Sensing that his efforts were in vain, Theodora orchestrated Thomas’s flight in 1244, first to Naples and then to Rome. There, the philosopher met the Order’s General Master, Johann von Wildeshausen, and became a member of the monastic community.

After enrolling at the University of Paris in 1245, the young man was mentored by theologian Albert the Great. Thomas Aquinas was called the Sicilian Bull by his fellow students due to his size and severe demeanor, which was unusual for a monk.

Three years later, Thomas left with his master and went to Cologne to teach students the laws of the Old Testament. He went back to Paris in 1252 to finish his theological master’s degree. Four years later, the philosopher received an opportunity to become regent of the University of Paris for his services to education; in 1268, Thomas accepted this position once more.

The Roman Catholic Church bears Thomas Aquinas’s legacy: in 1261, Pope Urban IV asked the philosopher to write hymns for the newly established feast of Corpus Christi. We still sing “Tantum ergo,” “Pange lingua,” and “Panis angelicus” nowadays.

The church once more looked to Thomas for assistance in 1265 when the Italian was offered a post as a theologian by the subsequent Pope, Clement IV.

Following his resignation as regent of the University of Paris in 1272, Thomas Aquinas settled in Naples and began preaching to the populace. The thinker was overcome by divine enlightenment a year later.

In December of 1273, Thomas Aquinas experienced another epiphany when he was seized by a protracted ecstasy while giving a sermon. His greatest work, which came to be known as the Summa Theologica, was abandoned. The thinker felt inspired to write again after taking a break, but he was never able to finish the treatise.

The fundamental objective of the Second Council of Lyons, which was called by Pope Gregory X, was to bring the Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches together. Additionally invited to the meeting was Thomas Aquinas. The man became gravely ill after hitting his head on a fallen tree limb while traveling on a donkey along the Roman Appian Way.

For medical attention, the philosopher was brought to Montecassino. After recovering his health, Thomas started his trek but soon became unwell once more. The Fossanova Abbey provided him with a place to stay. He was cared after by the monks for several days. On March 7, 1274, while making a comment on the Song of Solomon, Thomas Aquinas passed away at his desk.

On July 18, 1323, after fifty years, Pope John XXII declared Thomas Aquinas a saint and established St. Thomas Aquinas Day on March 7 in the Roman calendar. The date was shifted to January 28 after 1969. The philosopher’s bones were moved several times: first, in January 1369, they were placed in the church of the Jacobin monastery in Toulouse; secondly, from 1789 to 1974, they were housed in the Toulouse Basilica of St. Saturnin; finally, they were moved back to the Jacobin monastery church, where they are still located today.

Concepts and Philosophy

Never having regarded philosophers as his peers, Thomas Aquinas saw them as heathens who “deny the truth and wisdom of Christian revelation.” Additionally, he held that since God’s revelation is more significant than reason, philosophy serves theology. Thomas’s admiration for Aristotle was evident in his scholastic views, notwithstanding his distasteful remarks.

Thomas Aquinas created his own four phases of knowing the truth, using Aristotle’s four stages as a foundation: experience, art, knowledge, and wisdom. According to what he wrote, wisdom is knowledge of God, or being above all phases. The scholar proceeded to distinguish three categories of wisdom: theological (knowledge derived from faith), philosophical (wisdom derived from reason), and grace.

Thomas Aquinas shared Aristotle’s belief that the soul is a separate entity that exists according to human wants and reflects both good and bad deeds. Man is given a soul so that, upon death, he can join the Lord.

Thus, the thought claims, a rational citizen aspires to live morally so that they can reconcile with the Creator on the other side of the planet. Here, Thomas restates the theories of Aurelius Augustine, sometimes known as Augustine the Blessed, who is considered the founder of Christian philosophy.

A person uses reason, intelligence, and mind to comprehend the universe. The first one makes assessments and deductions, the second aids in the analysis of outward manifestations of occurrences, and the third is a person’s collection of spiritual attributes. Thomas Aquinas believed that knowledge is what generally sets humans apart from other living things, including plants, animals, and divine entities.

The distinction between essence and existence was initially made by Thomas. Later, this distinction served as the cornerstone of Catholicism. Thomas Aquinas referred to essence as the “pure idea,” which is a collection of qualities that make up the essence of a phenomenon or object. An object or phenomenon’s existence is demonstrated by its very existence. God must approve this or that thing in order for it to exist.

The beliefs of the philosopher and his theological work “Summa Theologica” serve as the foundation for the school of thought known as Thomism, or Thomasism. It talks more about how to accept faith through reason than it does about the dogmas of faith. The adoption of Thomas Aquinas’ philosophy as Catholicism’s official ideology, however, represents the philosophy’s highest appraisal.

 

 

John Locke and the Evolution of Natural Rights Theory

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John Locke and the Evolution of Natural Rights Theory

The earliest indications of freedom in England emerged in the 17th century. Natural sciences took the place of medieval philosophy in universities when theology and Aristotle’s ideas were taught. In addition, England’s 17th century was characterized by a civil war and a slow shift from absolute to constitutional monarchy. The eminent English philosopher John Locke was born around this period, and his writings served as the foundation for philosophy across the globe.

Early Life and Adolescence

The future philosopher was born in 1632 in the little community of Wrington, which is close to Bristol County.

John Locke, the boy’s wealthy and successful lawyer, was one of the best in the community.

John senior, a man who values independence, was a captain in Oliver Cromwell’s army during Charles I’s rule. Locke senior lost everything he had saved during the Revolution because of his extraordinary compassion in helping those in need. So the father instilled in his son the idea that he need to strive to live for society.

The scientist’s mother’s biography only mentions her maiden name, which was King. His contemporaries never heard anything more about the mother who reared the philosopher.

The boy was raised in a family that opposed both the absolute monarchy and the dominating Anglican Church system. Neither his mother nor father approved of either system.

Raising their son, John’s parents each contributed in a different way to the boy’s growth. Locke Jr. thus received his love of freedom and disdain for tiny, everyday things from his father and his piety from his mother.

Because John’s sibling passed away from illness when he was only a baby, the mother feared that she would lose her children. As a result, Locke’s mother prayed frequently and lived in continual fear of God.

The boy was raised in accordance with Puritan principles, which included severe religiosity. The youngster was mostly raised by his father, who created his own approach that John Jr. later commended.

John Sr. kept his son completely obedient and at a considerable distance from him. Subsequently, he gradually let the boy get closer, and the menacing tone and commands transformed into common sense counsel. The “boss” and “subordinate” eventually grew to be equals and were bonded by a deep relationship.

Growing up, Locke was a bright and well-read boy. Colonel Alexander Popham, a friend of his father, suggested that he enroll John Jr. at Westminster School.

Locke was the best student in school, according to the philosopher’s biographers, who state that the boy pursued every topic with diligence and assiduity.

Locke enrolled at Oxford University in 1652 and studied medicine, literature, Greek and Latin, among other subjects. Robert Boyle himself taught natural science to the young pupil. Locke’s interest in the philosophy of mathematician René Descartes began during his time at college, and this led to the formation of the student’s worldview.

Robert Boyle, John Locke’s mentor and instructor, piqued his curiosity.

Descartes instilled in Locke a dislike for meaningless, empty words, and John held the belief that wit and brevity are sisters throughout his life.

The future philosopher also started following the ideas of science-loving John Wilkins, and medical scientist Richard Lowe cultivated a love of medicine in the young man.

Knowledge Theory

In 1690, John Locke penned his ground-breaking work, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Scientific research on “innate ideas,” which originated in the philosophy of the ancient Greek scholar Plato, supported Locke’s beliefs. Descartes, whose writings John Locke studied, also took this theory into consideration in the 17th century.

“Innate ideas” are concepts in human understanding that are not dependent on emotions and hence cannot be learned. That is, those values that, through “instincts,” result in consensus among all people.

However, John Locke did not agree with this notion; in fact, he expressed the opposing opinion in his essay on sensualism. The philosopher argues that humans adopt certain concepts (like medical discoveries) because they are useful rather than because they are “innate.” The scientist held that lived experience, which is based on sensory experiences, is the foundation of human understanding.

The mind creates complex ideas, which are composed of simpler ideas. Simple concepts also emerge from each person’s unique life experience: man is a “blank sheet of paper” full of life reflection.

John Locke, then, disputes Descartes’ assertion that the soul is ever-thinking and that thinking is an inherent quality of the soul.

The English philosopher held that experience is the source of knowledge and that Descartes believed that thinking is a natural human state.

Though John Locke is regarded as the greatest English thinker of the 19th century, none of the scientific discoveries were made without the assistance of other individuals. John Locke is not the original originator of a philosophical concept, despite the intriguing interpretation of his ideas.

The impact of physicist Isaac Newton and psychologist Thomas Hobbes is demonstrated in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

According to Locke, the world—which is constrained by time and space—is ruled by God, the ultimate mind. Every creature has a purpose and engages in social interactions. Man exists to know and honor God, and it is thru this that happiness exists both here on Earth and in other worlds.

Teaching

Locke taught ancient languages for a few years after earning a distinction degree from Oxford University, but he quickly abandoned this job to accept an offer from Earl Anthony Ashley Cooper Shaftesbury. John Locke was right when he diagnosed Anthony’s terrible illness. The appreciative Earl made John an offer to work as a family physician and raise his two sons.

Locke shared his thoughts on schooling in letters to his buddy Clarke at that period. The educational book “Thoughts on Education” was inspired by the meticulously curated correspondence between the philosopher and Edward.

John was certain that education, which shapes a person’s character, will, and moral discipline, has a greater influence on a person’s behavior than does his or her own perception. Furthermore, Locke believed that spiritual and physical education should advance together. Spiritual education focuses on the development of morality and dignity, while physical education focuses on health and hygiene.

Concepts of Politics

John Locke’s parents shaped his political perspective when he was a young boy.

Of Locke’s political theories, “The Right of the People to Rebel against Tyranny” and “Reflections on the Glorious Revolution of 1688” contain the most well-known notion of a democratic revolution.

The philosopher argues that natural human rights and individual freedoms must be protected by the state. According to Locke, the people must elect those in positions of authority, and citizens must submit to the rule of law rather than the arbitrary will of their superiors.

John was a supporter of the social contract theory and also invented the concept of the separation of powers.

It is the state’s responsibility to ensure that every individual and his property are protected and to deal with criminal matters. Locke therefore develops the ideas of legislative power and a legitimate constitutional state.

Individual Life

In privacy and seclusion, John Locke outperformed even Kant. The renowned philosopher appears to be a life-loving, worldly man. But if, toward the end of his life, Kant had a house and a servant, Locke had neither. As evidenced by Anthony’s account, John was a homeless man who worked as a teacher in other people’s homes for his entire life.

John’s acts were all fragmentary; he did not set out to acquire a focal activity. He studied politics when he could, performed medicine when someone asked him to, and so on.

The devout John Locke did not value the worldly life, but rather prepared for the life that awaits a person in the hereafter, as revealed in Holy Scripture. Both Locke’s devotion to religion and his ill health can help to explain this. Ill people can sometimes live a long life, but they always plan to die, viewing themselves as visitors to this world.

The scientist was single and had no kids. Locke made an effort to bring science and religion together.

Demise

During his latter years, Locke resided in the rural home of Dameris Masham, an acquaintance who served as his surrogate. Because of her admiration for the philosopher, Locke’s moral precepts were upheld in her family.

Locke was deeply troubled by the loss of his hearing in old age, which prevented him from hearing his conversants.

At the age of 72, the philosopher passed away from asthma on October 28, 1704. The physicist was laid to rest not far from where he last lived.

Plato: The Architect of Idealism in Ancient Greece

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Plato: The Architect of Idealism in Ancient Greece

The ancient era is when philosophy’s foundational ideas were developed. Three of the greatest writers, scientists, and intellectuals of their day are Pythagoras, Socrates, and Plato. They all made contributions to the growth of philosophy. In regards to Plato, British logician Alfred Whitehead asserted that all of European philosophy is really a byproduct of the writings of the ancient Greek, who established the idealistic movement.

Early Life and Adolescence

It’s unclear exactly the year the philosopher was born. It is thought to have occurred in 428 or 427 BC. It is believed that he was born on May 21, also known as 7 Thargelion. The Greeks observed this day as the birthday of Apollo, the son of Zeus and the Titaness Leto.

Furthermore, the precise location of birth is not mentioned. Though there is another story, most sources refer to Athens as Plato’s hometown. It states that the future philosopher’s life story started on the Saronic Gulf island of Aegina, and that Plato’s family relocated to Athens to ensure that their kids had a top-notch education.

It should be noted that there is disagreement over more than only Plato’s birth year and location. It’s believed that the philosopher’s true name was Aristocles, and that Ariston of Argos, his pankration instructor, gave him the nickname Plato because of his broad shoulders (“platos” means “wide” in ancient Greek). This was initially mentioned by the Greek historian Diogenes Laërtius.

Parents from the noble class were Plato’s parents. The philosopher’s mother was descended from the Athenian reformer Solon, while his father was a descendant of the Attic monarch Codrus. Plato had two uncles on his mother’s side: Critias and Charmides, who belonged to the pro-Spartan ruling group known as “The Thirty Tyrants.” Apart from Plato, the parents of Plato, Ariston and Perictione, had two other children: Glaucon, a son, and Adeimantus, a daughter.

The kids were given a classical musical education, which was also known as an intellectual, moral, and aesthetic education (called after the muses). The pre-Socratic philosopher Cratylus, an adherent of Heraclitus of Ephesus, instructed Plato during that period. The future thinker studied a variety of subjects under his direction, including science foundations, rhetoric, literature, and ethics.

Plato excelled in the fine arts, literature, and wrestling during his education. He also went on to compete in the Olympic and Nemean Games.

During the post-Periclean age, when cowardice, laziness, and avarice were on the rise, Plato spent his formative years. The armed confrontation between the Peloponnesian and Delian Leagues only made matters worse.

Ariston, the politician, made an effort to make life better for his fellow citizens. He therefore desired for his son to go to college and become a politician, but Plato had different ideas about what lay ahead. He gave writing a go, writing plays and poems.

Young Plato made the decision to bring a tragedy he had composed to the community theater in 408 BC. He encountered a powerful, elderly man while traveling. The young man’s life was completely turned upside down and then given a fresh start by the chat they had. Socrates was this dude.

Individual Life

Even for historians who have pieced together the details of Plato’s history, his private life remains a mystery. The community of wives, husbands, and children, as well as the rejection of private property, were among the teachings of the philosopher. As a result, it is difficult to identify just one of Plato’s wives, just as it is impossible to definitively identify his biological children.

Plato was never officially married. He personally espoused the idea of platonic love, characterizing it as a bond of respect and concern between pupils and an instructor and emphasizing the need to love a person’s spirit rather than just his physical form. He saw emotions as something inferior that needed to be restrained.

Views and Philosophy

The reformist teaching of Socrates stood in stark contrast to earlier traditions. His philosophy placed more focus on studying man than it did on the world and environment. The writings of the youthful Plato attest to his admiration for the opinions and remarks made by Socrates.

Socrates was found guilty and given the death penalty in 399 BC. The philosopher was charged with propagating a new religion and corrupting people instead of paying respect to the gods that the people of the city worshipped. Plato’s “Apology of Socrates” was based on the speech Socrates gave in defense of himself, which was granted due respect for his prior exploits, which included fighting in the Peloponnesian War. Socrates was executed by poisoning a cup.

Plato was deeply affected by Socrates’ killing and developed a strong animosity toward democracy as a result. Following his teacher’s passing, he set off on a voyage with the intention of meeting other scientists, sharing his experiences with them, and learning about the dialectics questions concerning the fundamentals of existence. In the ensuing ten to fifteen years, the philosopher traveled to Egypt, Megara, Cyrene, and Phoenicia. He was able to get in touch with and converse with Chaldeans and eastern magicians at this period, as well as Archytas of Tarentum and fellow Socrates disciples Euclid and Theodore. Plato became genuinely intrigued with eastern philosophy as a result of the latter.

Following many travels, Plato reached Sicily. Among the philosopher’s ambitions was the founding of a new state in collaboration with the military commander of the area, Dionysius the Elder (also called Syracusan). The man said that in the new state, thinkers should have power rather than those drinking poison from a cup while cheering others on. However, the concept was never carried out since Dionysius proved to be a despot who vehemently disagreed with Plato’s theories.

The philosopher then made the decision to go back to Athens. Plato was compelled by the city to reevaluate several of his theories regarding the perfect state. The Academy, an educational establishment where Plato started instructing others, was the outcome of these contemplations and was established in 387 BC. Thus was born a new combination of philosophy and religion.

The park outside of Athens where Plato’s teachings were held was called for the mythological figure Hecademos, and the school itself was named after him. Students studied astronomy, natural science, mathematics, philosophy, and other sciences at Plato’s Academy. Plato taught through dialogues because he thought this was the most effective way to grasp the essence of things.

A published dialogue by him was titled “Feast” and depicts a discussion between ancient Greeks praising the god Eros. The philosophical literature describes the various forms of love and how to recognize it. Socrates’ concepts of the beautiful, which are essentially good, take center stage.

The guy adopted the practice of the Academy’s teachers and students living together from Pythagoras’s adherents. The students included the philosopher Aristotle and the astronomer Eudochus, who introduced Plato to Eastern beliefs and teachings.

At the request of his friend Dion, the king of Syracuse and Dionysius the Elder’s brother-in-law, Plato returned to Sicily in 366 and 361 BC. Dionysius killed Dion to demonstrate his disapproval of this agreement. Plato was grieved by his friend’s passing and was compelled to return to Athens, where he taught his students till the end of his life.

Eventually, the philosopher arrived at objective idealism while trying to formulate a theory that would unify man and the universe. He discussed the soul and non-existence in his writings, holding that all that surrounds us is made up of ideas, souls, and inanimate things. According to Plato, there is a perfect world. To the best of his knowledge, every item in this universe is a flawless replica, a prototype of an actual object.

Though there exist copies, none of Plato’s original works have survived to this day. Written on Egyptian papyrus, the first known copy of the philosopher’s writings was discovered at Pemdzhe, 160 kilometers southwest of Cairo.

The works of Plato comprise the Platonic Corpus. The preservation of the philosopher’s collected works is due to Aristophanes of Byzantium, the ancient Greek bibliographer. By the way, he was the one who organized Plato’s works into trilogies first.

Afterwards, Thrasyllus of Menda, the philosopher, and Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus, the court astrologer, reorganized. The division of Plato’s works into tetralogies by Thrasyllus is still in use today.

Other attempts were made to arrange and classify the philosopher’s writings. Popular is the rendition by the Russian classical scholar Alexei Fedorovich Losev. Four periods can be distinguished in Plato’s books, according to Losev: the early (“Crito”, “Charmides”, etc.), the transitional (“Euthydemus”, “Ion”, etc.), the mature (“Timaeus”, “Republic”, etc.), and the late (“Laws” and “After-Law”).

Only Timaeus, one of Plato’s writings, was once accessible to the general public. The remaining writings were translated from ancient Greek into Latin by the Italian scholar Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499), who remedied the situation.

Demise

Following Dion of Syracuse’s murder in 354 BC, Plato made his way back to Athens, where he spent the remainder of his life. During his final moments, he started writing a new book titled “On the Good as Such.” The foundation of the work had already been developed by Plato, who also shared it with his students. But he was never able to record his ideas in writing.

Historians reported that Socrates’ pupil never laughed and that he read a volume of the famous poet Aristophanes before bed. Though Plato was a major figure in philosophy, not much is known about his personal life; he rarely referenced himself in his dialogues, save to describe a few minor incidents.

Given his advanced age, Plato exited this world on his birthday in 348 (or 347) BC due to natural causes. These occurrences have multiple versions. One claimed the man passed away at his work, while another claimed it happened during a wedding feast. Although pediculosis is thought to have contributed to the philosopher’s demise, Thomas Stanley claimed in the “History of Philosophy” that Plato suffered significant injury as a result of others spreading such terrible tales about him.

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